cultural practices in agriculture and farming

(c) Availability of inputs such as labour and planting materials: The workers to be employed that will work in the farm must be available in the area where the farm is to be located.
Crop planting materials should also be available. The ease of transporting farm produce and sale also guard the choice of a farm site.

2. Clearing of site as a cultural practice
clearing of the farm site is very key to agricultural cultural practices. The farm site is cleared by means of hand tools such as the cutlass or implement such as bulldozer. The equipment used depends on the nature of the vegetation in the area.

In the rain forest belt, cutlass may be required for brushing the under growth while axe, motor saw or chain saw and cutlass are used to fell the trees. The trees are chopped into pieces.

you can read more about forestry here
On large scale, bulldozer may be used to remove forest vegetation.

3. Stumping cultural practice This cultural practice is the removal of plant stumps and roots from the soil, it is a tedious operation.
The practice is usually, avoided in small scale private farms. Where crop rotation system is practiced, stumping is done. This is usually in school farms, government farms and corporate farms such as cutlass,axe, pick axe, mechanical stumper and bulldozer are used in stumping.

you can read my post on tillage systems here

4. Plotting or laying out. plotting as a cultural practice is The act of dividing the farm land into sections is called plotting or laying out. This is usually based on the report of soil survey. Soil survey shows the nature of the land (Topography).

Soil types nutrients status, soil and water conservation methods to be sued on the land. It also shows where to locate the various farm stead. Plotting can be done by using the 3-4-5 method, How to use the 3-4-5 metric method in farm plotting:

Erect a pole at about the centre of the farmland. From the pole A, take a base line AB 4m long with a string tied to the pole.

Agriculture, farming, agricultural products and crops classification, cultural practices in agricultural science

Tie another string 3m long to the pole at A and extend to C. A third string 5m long is also tied to pole B and is extended to meet pole C thereby forming a triangle with a right angle at A.

arrange poles along the line AB to the end of the farm. The same is done to the side line AC. Ensure that you sight them to give straight lines. The length and breadth of the farm so measured will make it easy to divide the land into plots. Paths are used to demarcate the land into blocks.

Method of Farm Plotting in cultural practices

Tillage Practices
Land tillage is the operation that follows after the land area has been cleared, stumped and plotted. Tillage involves the opening up of the soil for seed planting.

This could be done by means of simple farm implements like ploughs, harrows or ridgers could be used in tilling the land. This is used mostly under large scale farming.

The purpose of tillage is the same whether hand tools or mechanized equipment are used.
Importance of land tillage practices

HERE IS A POST TILLAGE MACHINERY

ALSO READ ABOUT TILLAGE SYSTEMS HERE

1. It provides good soil environment for germination and emergence of seeds.
2. It encourages aggregation of particles for better contact between seed roots and soil.
3. It helps to improve aeration of the soil.
4. It assists the farmer in weed control.

(a) Ploughing cultural practices

This involves the tilling or turning of the soil upside down.
It can be done with a hoe, a spade, or a tractor driven plough in the tropical regions or mould-board plough, used mostly in the temperate regions.

Animals could be used to draft the plough during tilling. It is usually the first equipment to use on cleared farmland. The plough cuts and inverts large lumps soil.

Weed seeds are then buried below cultivated seeds. The disc plough is more suitable for use in heavy, stick) and dry tropical sails with the mouldboard plough.

(b) Harrowing cultural practices

The harrow is the next equipment used after land has been ploughed. It is used to further breakdown the lumps of soil cut by the plough into smaller pieces.
This called pulverization of soil.

The disc harrows are more suitable for use in tropical environment. After harrowing it may possible to grow crops such as rice which do not require seed beds or ridges.

However, it may be necessary to construct set beds or ridges for other crops such as yam,tomato and groundnut after harrowing.
This will necessitate the exact operation which is ridging.

(c) Ridging: This is the last stage in land preparation for planting of seeds or seedlings.
It can be done by means of Indian hoes tractor driven disc ridger or mouldboard ridger.

Animals could be used to drag ridger for ridge making.
Ridging is done normally across the slope of the land to prevent it from being washed away by erosion. It is spaced 1m apart.

This is measured from the top or crest of one ridge to the other. The length of the ridge depends on available land and choice the farmer.

A standard ridge should be 25m long. It has a conically shaped top or rest or triangular shape. The trench between two ridges is called furrow.
Tie-ridges can be constructed at intervals between two ridges especially in the school farms.

They are also called cross-bars. They help to keep water in the furrow for plant use in the ridges and prevent water erosion.
Ridging increases the depth of surface soil for better crop growth.
Manure is better provided for crop use during ridging. Ridging provides fine tilt that makes it easier for roots to penetrate and get food for plants in the soil. Other forms of seed beds are

(a) Heap: This is a built up small cone shaped hill usually less than 60 cm high. It is constructed with a hoe for growing tuber crops such as yam and cassava.

(b) use Mound in cultural practices

This is a raised heap with circular base. It is made with hoes and used for growing root and tuber crops such as yam, Cocoa-yam, cassava, potatoes and others.

More than one crop can be sown at one time on it. It is commonly used in Ibo farming communities of Nigeria, Mound for root and tuber crops.

(iii) Flat seed bed: This is used in low rainfall areas or periods or level and well drained land. There may be no other construction in this case, after farmland has been ploughed and harrowed.

It is used foreclose, growing crops such as rice.

(iv) bed: This should be a Special bed used for initial growing of crops before transplanting to the field or root bed us^ growing crops to maturity.

A bed generally is a raised top soil with square or rectangular flat top. It is suitable for vegetable crop production, though, other crops such as tobacco, cocoa, and citrus could be raised first in a seed bed; (nursery bed), ft is usually 1.20 m wide and 25 m long for a standard bed.

(i) Planting materials such -as seeds, seedlings, cuttings, sucker and so on should be taken from healthy plant sources.
(ii) They should be free of diseases and pest-infestation.
(iii) They should be viable and properly stored before use.
(iv) Planting materials of high quality should be bought and collected from the Ministry of Agriculture.

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Agro-Service Centre or Seed Multiplication Units. The activities’ associated with planting operations include planting dates, planting dates, seed rate, nursery and nursery practices, capping, transplanting and planting depth.

1. Date of planting
This refers to the period of the year at which a particular crop sown in order to produce well
It is usually after the First rainfall in the year for most crops except where irrigation is practiced
However, planting date varies for different crops. This is due to the of the crops.

For example, some grains and legumes require little rainfall for growth and production, and a dry period for the grains and and pods to get dried,

Vegetables, especially the leafy types require wet period for their growth and production. This is why specific period of the year is recommended for the growing of various crops in the different parts of Nigeria and West Africa,

for example, early maize is planted in the South between late February and April, late maize in August/September while it is planted June in the North. Cotton is planted in June. read cultural practices in maize cultivation

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum): 40cm to 60cm between rows and 30cm to 50cm between ‘plants or stands
(b) Okra (Abelmoschus): 60cm – 90cm between rows and 30cm between plants or within row
(c) Cow-pea (Vigna unguiculata): 80cm between rows and 30cm within rows
(d) Yam (Dioscorea spp): I’m between rows and 1m between plants (e) Maize (Zea mays) 90cm between row and 30cm along rows. (f) Cassava (manihot esculenta): 1m between rows and 1m between plants or along rows. (g) Carrot (Ducus carota): 40cm between rows and I cm to 15cm along the rows,
(h) Rice (Oryza sativa): 30cm between rows and 15cm along the drills or broadcast. (i) Guinea corn (Sorghum spp): 60cm apart for tall varieties and 20cm to 30cm apart for the dwarf varieties.
(j) Groundnut (Anichis hypogaea): 25cm apart and along rows.

3. Cultural Seed rate,

This is used to describe the amount of planting materials required to plant one hectare of land. It is usually expressed in kilograms per hectare, when seeds are used for planting. If plant parts are used. it is expressed in numbers of stands per hectare.

5. Capping The practice of using dry grasses or pieces of wood to cover the spot where yam sett or seed yam is planted either on ridge, mound or1 flat is called capping. It prevents, direct heat of the sun. from diving up planting materials, and conserves moisture and optimum heat for germination.

6. Nursery and nursery practices A nursery is an area where seeds are first grown and tended till the seedling are strong or grown enough to be planted out in their permanent beds or fields.

Consideration is usually given to crops with small seeds and those with less viability in nursery establishment. Crops such as African Spinach, Amaranthus spp, tomatoes lettuce cabbage, garden egg, pepper, citrus, oil and cocoa can be grown in a nursery.

Advantages of nursery establishment
1. Seeds too small to be planted directly or at stake or in the site are produced through nursery.
2. Seedlings too weak at tender age to compete with weeds are cared for in the nursery
3. Proper care is given to crops so as to escape pests and diseases attacks.
4. Only healthy plants are transplanted thereby reducing spread of diseases in crops.
5. It gives uniformity in growth of field crops.
6. As a result of the good start given to the crops, high yield is obtained.

Types of nursery:

A standard nursery bed is 1,20m by 7.50m in size. In preparing the nursery bed, compost manure is added.
About six (6) head-pans are added to every 9m2 of the nursery bed.
The compost should be well rotted or properly decomposed.
Poultry droppings (Guano) can also be used. this should be mixed thoroughly with the soil.

Where fertilizer is used, it should be mixed with the soil at the rate of 500g per 9m”. the bed should be mulched properly thereafter to avoid loss of essential nutrients and conserve moisture

Seeds are planted after a few days in drills. The drills should be ell spaced to avoid root destruction during lifting for transplanting.

Good spacing in the nursery prevents the spread of diseases. The method of nursery bed preparation also goes for root beds where the crop will grow to maturity.

The nursery is watered morning and evening during dry season. A nursery should he milled but not too thick to avoid the development tiny seedlings.

Avoid excessive watering in the nursery as this produces tiny seedlings which are easily attacked by diseases.
Seed boxes or trays could be used as nursery.
The boxes or trays are perforated below to allow in air and excess water to drain out.

To provide a suitable growth medium, thee parts of good top soil, two parts of properly decayed compost (not hot) and one part of river sand are mixed together and put in each box.

The boxes are sometimes made to specification of 53cm by 9cm either with wood or metal. Seeds are planted in drills or broadcast as the case may be.
The boxes are kept under shade. Where polythene bags are used, seedlings are easy to transport to the permanent plot. Root destruction is reduced too.
Which ever method used in nursery preparation, even in green house, optimum condition for growth should be provided before transplanting is done.

7. Cultural Transplanting methods
This involves lifting seedlings from the nursery and planting them out in their permanent plot or field.
Most tree crops and vegetables are raised in the nursery before transplanting.

Transplanting is done when seedlings are grown up to four or five leaves stage. It is advisable to transplant in the evening or during a dull day. Water the nursery before transplanting.
Transplanted seedlings should not be allowed to wilt.
Therefore, water immediately after transplanting to enable the soil get in contact with the roots.

The soil is checked to about 7.50 cm deep from the top soil. If not moist, then more, water should be applied. Only healthy seedlings should be lifted and ensure that the roots of seedlings are not damaged.

Transplanting could be carried out in two ways:
1. The ball of earth system. 2. The naked root system.

The ball of earth’ involves lifting seedlings with earth or soil around the roots. This helps to preserve the roots and minimize shock in seedlings.

A hand trowel is used in this method for transplanting.
Before transplanting , the stands are marked and opened on the field.
Put in the seedlings and firm the soil around the roots.
It is necessary to water immediately. The naked root system involves lifting seedlings without soil attached to the roots.

This is used mainly in rubber, fruits, and tree production. Though, a farmer may choose to use it in vegetable production, but the ball of earth system is more advisable, root system may be necessary if seedlings are to be transported to far places. Where die polythene bags are used, they should be cut off carefully before putting the plant into the ground.

Cultural Post planting operations

These are activities carried out on the farm after planting has been done. These include thinning, supplying, mulching, manuring and fertilizer application, watering, weeding, pest and disease control, harvesting, farm level processing and storage.

Thinning
This is the reduction in the number of plants per stand. extra seedlings are removed from a stand where man) viable seeds germinated. Thinning should be done when the soil is moist. The weakest of the plants on the stand is usually the one to be removed. ( are should be taken not to damage the remaining plants on the stand. Press the soil around the roots of the remaining plants. It is practiced with vegetable crops and cereal such as maize. Thinning practice reduces over crowding and crop competition for nutrients, space and sunlight.

When organic mulches decay, they add to the nutrients in the soil thereby increasing production.

The decayed products increase the water-holding capacity of the soil.
Mulching provides ways of utilizing waste products from crop production, e.g. stubble mulch.

Mulching reduces surface run-off and increases water infiltration and percolation. It also limits the effect of temperature fluctuation on crops.

4. Manure and fertilizer application

Manures of various types (organic or inorganic) are applied to the soil to improve plant growth, development and production.
They are applied both in the nursery and permanent plot. Manures should be supplied in a balanced amount or at recommended dosage and forms.
They should be applied at the right lime and under suitable weather conditions. Manures are applied during planting or just after planting and again before flowering for a good result.
Manures must not be applied directly on the crops, but a few centimetres away from each stand. This will help to avoid burning

6. Weeding
The major problem facing farmers in crop production is weed control. Weeds constitute a nuisance to crop production. They compete with crops for space, available water and essential mineral nutrients.
They reduce the quality and market value of harvested farm products.
Some produce poisonous, substances that are harmful to both crops and animals on field grazing; Weeds also harbor insect pests of crops.
The control of weeds, results in high cost of production to the farmers. The presence of weeds in fish ponds inhibits the air and light available in the pond.
This reduces the productivity of the fish in the pond. The farm should be weeded often;
Depending on the type of crops grown, weeding could be twice or more before maturity. This can be done either by hoeing, hand pulling, the use of cutlass or by chemical method which involves spraying the weeds herbicides cover crops could be planted to smother weeds.

7. Pest and disease control

Traps can also be used to eliminate pests such as rats, grass cutters, birds and some insects.
Chemical method can be adopted if the wants farmer to control pests.
It involves the use of chemicals called pesticides to spray crops infested by pests in order to kill them Poisoned bails are also used to kill animals such as rats and grass cutter through feeding.
In some cases, natural enemies of insect pests can be introduced to feed on the pests in order to reduce the population in a farming area or zone
The control of crop diseases is an important post-planting activity in order to have good harvest. Disease is an abnormal condition in crop plant that may show in some part or on the whole plant causing damage to the crop.

Control of diseases can be achieved through the use of clean seeds and resistant crop varieties. early planting and the use of appropriate chemicals as spray or dust on crops.

8. Harvesting
When crops have reached maturity or ripened, the products are then gathered (harvested) for use. The common crop parts normal harvested for use includes tubers, leaves, fruits, seeds and others. Harvesting of crops can be carried out manually through the use of knife, sickle, cutlass and hoe.
In very large farms, harvesting is done with the aid of mechanical harvesters and other devices.

9. Farm Level Processing
Processing is the conversion of crop products into other forms more acceptable or convenient to the consumers. In some instances, processing starts from the farm site.
For example, the extraction of melon seeds from the pods and pulp. and the subsequent drying is a form of processing. The peeling of cassava takes place in the farm before final conversion into garri, fufu or starch.
In cocoa production, the extraction of the beans from the ripe pod, fermentation and drying of the beans take place, in most cases, in the farm. Other forms of processing that cannot he carried out in the farm site are done in factories where machines are installed for the purpose

10. Storage
Storage involves keeping farm products for future use. When i he farmer has harvested and at times processed, the last stage of the post-planting operation is storage. There are many storage methods that the farmers can use depending on the type of product. This include the use of barn in the case of yam tubers, the use of cribs and silos in the case of grains such as maize and the use of refrigerators and cold storage in the case of perishable products, such as fruits and vegetables.

CROPPING SYSTEMS

Identify and explain the different cropping systems in cultural practices.

2. Give the advantages and disadvantages of each cropping system The way a farmland is cropped varies from one farmer to the other system adopted may depend on the available farmland, the of agriculture (whether subsistence or commercial), the need of the farmer and so on. The following are the cropping systems commonly practiced by farmers.

1 Mono-cropping

This is the growing of only one type of crop (such as maize) on a piece of land. It could be for a season or for several years as in some farming system.

The system is also termed sole cropping.

what is crop rotation within the classification of crop

Advantages

1. It makes possible the use of machines in farm operation. 2. It leads higher productivity per hectare, 3. It also leads to specialization among farmers. 4. The control of weeds is easy. This is because herbicides can be used

Disadvantages

1. It is risky because crop failure arising from pest, diseases or weather conditions will result in total loss of income to the farmer for that year.

2. The system encourages the rapid spread of pests and diseases on the farm.

3. Labour may not be efficiently utilized throughout the year.

4. It does not afford the farmer a variety of crops.
2. Mixed cropping

READ MORE ABOUT PLANTING PROCESS HERE

This is also called multiple cropping because it involves the planting of more than one type of crop on the same farmland at a time.

It is very common under subsistence agriculture and in are where farmlands are limited. Under mixed cropping, the farmer could practice any of the following:

(a) Inter-planting:

This is the growing of two crops together on the same land. The crop which was planted first is also harvest first while the one planted last remains on the plot to harvested later.

An example is the growing of maize and together. Maize, which is usually planted first, is also harvest first. Maize is therefore said to be inter-planted with yam.

LEARN MORE ABOUT MAIZE AS A CROP HERE

(b) Inter-cropping:

This is when two crops are grown together with the crop planted last being harvested first.

Usually the c planted last has shorter lifespan than the one planted first, example is the planting of melon after yam has been plant The melon will be harvested first while the yam continues on plot. Yam is therefore said to be inter-cropped with melon.

Advantages 1.

It affords the farmer a variety of crops.

2. It serves as insurance against the failure of one type of crops.

3. It minimizes the spread of diseases and pests on the farm.

4. It enables the crops to make efficient use of soil nutrients.

5. The ensures efficient utilization of labour throughout the year.

Disadvantages

1. It does not encourage the use of machines on the farm.

2. It may lead to rapid exhaustion of soil nutrients if legumes not included.

3. It is labour intensive.

4. Pests and disease agents may persist on the farmland. This is because there are always food and alternative hosts for them.

3. Continuous cropping

This is the practice of putting a farmland under cultivation continuously, that is. from year to year. It may take any of forms:

READ ABOUT PLANTING PROCESS HERE

(a) Annual cropping:

Planting annual crops which are replaced after harvesting. This means the land is cleared, tilled and cropped every season.

This is common where land is scarce

(b)

Permanent cropping

This involves planting and maintaining the crops, usually planting permanent crops continuously on a farm is also known as plantation farming.

Advantages

1. It reduces the cost of land preparation after the initial clearing and tilling.

2 It enables the farmer to construct permanent structures such as storage structures on the farm.

3 It tan be practiced where land is scarce.

Disadvantages

1. The fertility of the soil is easily exhausted.

2. It leads to destruction of soil structure.

3. It encourages soil erosion.

4. Yields me normally reduced with increasing years of cropping.

5. It encourages build-up of crop pests and disease agents.

6. It required high amount of money to keep the land fertile and productive.

4. Crop Rotation
crop rotation involves the planting of different types of crop in different plots on a farmland during one season; and at the beginning of the next season, the crops are changed from their respective plots, while following a definite order or sequence.

The system combines mixed cropping with continuous cropping and is mainly practiced by institutions of learning. For crop rotation to be successful,

certain principles must be followed Principles of Crop Rotation

(a) The same type of crop should not be allowed to follow each other on the same plot. For example, maize should not follow maize.

(b) Crops that belong to the same group should not also follow each other on the same plot, e.g. cassava should not follow yam, or to follow maize.

(c) Crops that have deep roots like yam and cassava, should be followed with those that have shallow roots such as maize and groundnut.

(d) Crops that consume a lot of nitrogen such as the-cereal group should be followed by those that add nitrogen to the soil such as maize and the legume group,

(e) Crops likely to be affected by the same disease and/or pest should not follow each other on the same plot. The number of crops involved in the rotation will determine the. type of rotation.

Therefore, there could be a two-year, three-year, or tour-year crop rotation. How to Design a Four-Year Crop Rotation

(a) Divide the farmland into four plots.

(b) Choose the crops to cultivate.

(c) Plant one crop on each plot, making sure the principles guiding the adoption of the system are adhered to.

(4) At the end of one season, shift the crop from plot B to A, C to B, D to C and A to D as shown in Figure 3.2.1.

(5) Follow this sequence until the fourth year is reached.

Year

Plot A

Plot B

Plot C

Plot D

1 Maize Cassava Groundnut Yam and Melon

2 Cassava Groundnut Yam and Melon Maize

3 Groundnut Yam and Melon Maize Cassava

4 Yam and Melon Maize Cassava Groundnut Figure 3.2.1:

A Four-Year Crop Rotation,

Advantages

1. It helps to maintain soil fertility.

2. It makes efficient use of soil nutrients.

3. The farmer has access to a variety of crops.

4. It minimizes the spread of diseases and pests and helps to check weeds

5. It reduces soil erosion.

6. It leads to efficient utilization of labour.

7. It is a good practice where land is scarce.

Disadvantages

1. It is labour intensive.

2. Crop yields may decrease with years except additional manures or fertilizers are applied.

3. It leads to destruction of soil structure which may facilitate soil erosion.

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